England

In Shakespeare’s “Hamlet” in Act 1, a guard says, “Something is rotten in the state of Denmark,” expressing his suspicion and concern about the moral corruption within the kingdom.

Now that can certainly be said about the United Kingdom. There’s something rotten, and that rot has to do with a particular kind of immigrants who follow a particular religion, and what they are doing to the British kingdom. More accurately, what those immigrants are allowed to get away with: wholesale organized rape, murder and other assorted crimes.

[Did you recognize the image at the top of the post was the flag of England?]

I am an Anglophile. I admire British history, culture, and language. Their contributions in every field of human endeavor — philosophy, politics, administration, governance, mathematics, science, engineering, technology, music, literature, etc. — is unmatched. Just a few generations ago, the sun never set on the British Empire.

All that is gone now.

I am reminded of Bob Dylan’s line “I know that evening’s empire has returned into sand” from the song “Mr Tambourine Man.” The once mighty, verdant empire is turning into the arid desert sands of Arabia. Once they were great but now they are on a rapid descent into decay. I recall Percy Bysshe Shelley’s poem “Ozymandias”:

“My name is Ozymandias, King of Kings:
Look upon my works, ye Mighty, and despair!”
Nothing beside remains. Round the decay
Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare
The lone and level sands stretch far away.

No people can lay claim to the greats that the English can. Isaac Newton (1643-1727) and Charles Darwin (1809-1882), to name just two scientists. Philosophers Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626), John Locke (1632 – 1704), David Hume (1711 – 1776), David Hume (1711 – 1776). Economists Adam Smith (1723-1790), David Ricardo (1772-1823), Thomas Robert Malthus (1766 – 1834), Alfred Marshall (1842–1924).

It will take me too long to list all the greats in all the different disciplines that the British can claim. The English Enlightenment and the Scottish Enlightenment created the modern world. Their impact on the world is positive, unmatched and enduring.

So I’m going to allow Mr. Rafe Heydel-Mankoo to do that. He gave a presentation on the occasion of St. George’s Day. First the summary he posted on X. After that the video presentation. And then a list of key contributions by category. Everything below is Mr Heydel-Mankoo’s.

Begin quote:

England’s Top 10 Gifts to the World

Summary:

1. 1. Industrial Revolution: the greatest leap forward in human development in 12,000 years
  2. Railways (above and underground): Transformed society. Crucial to the creation of modern nations (India, Canada, USA etc.) and cities.
  3. Sport: No country created or codified more sports and had a bigger impact on notions of sportsmanship. This is not a trivial subject. Globally, sport is arguably the greatest source of national pride, identity, unity and social cohesion.
  4. Birthplace of the world’s two dominant forms of democracy: Westminster Parliamentary democracy but also the roots of American “Presidential” democracy. Almost every democracy in the world uses one of these two forms.
  5. Common Law.
  6. English language: the world’s first true lingua franca (which should now perhaps be renamed “lingua Anglia”)
  7. English liberty (aka the rights of Englishmen). English liberty is very different to Greek or Roman liberty. The United States of America was founded upon the principles of English liberty. The concepts have shaped the Anglosphere and much of the world.
  8. Capitalism. The Italians and Dutch were pioneers of early forms of capitalism, but modern “industrial capitalism” was born in the industrial revolution and no one did more than the English & Scots to spread it globally. The global spread of capitalism has seen the greatest eradication of poverty in human history. In 1820, 94% of the world lived in poverty. Today it is only 9.6%.
  9. English Protestantism (Anglicanism, Methodism, Quakerism etc.). Protestantism is one of the great secrets of the success of the Anglosphere, primarily through the promotion of literacy and individualism. Scottish Protestantism clearly also equally important.
  10. The British Empire. The British Empire was the primary means by which the great achievements of England, Britain and the West were spread to the four corners of the globe.

If I had to pick a Top 3 from the above list, I would say that nothing did more to advance civilisation and lift the world’s poor out of poverty and sickness than England’s three greatest gifts:

Top 3 : The Industrial Revolution, the spread of capitalism and the British Empire

However, without Protestantism it may have taken far longer for the world to benefit from these – and other countries may have taken the lead on the industrial revolution and capitalism.

These are merely my Top 10. There are of course many other achievements one could list (from the WWW right down to the invention of the suit: the first global standardized dress – and the international dress code of finance).

England can also lay claim to arguably the two most influential figures after Jesus Christ: Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin.

English contributions to the world span numerous domains, profoundly shaping global culture, governance, science, and more. Below, I critique, explain, list, and rank these contributions across specified categories (law, literature, liberty, music, sport, science, governance, military) and others where England has had significant impact. I also estimate their economic value in USD adjusted to 2025, detailing calculations and assumptions. The critique examines the scope, impact, and occasional downsides of these contributions, while the ranking reflects their global influence and enduring relevance.

Critique of English Contributions

England’s contributions are vast, often setting global standards in law, science, literature, and governance. The spread of the English language itself is a meta-contribution, enabling global communication but also linked to cultural imperialism. Many contributions, like common law or parliamentary democracy, emerged from practical needs rather than idealism, yet their adaptability ensured worldwide adoption. Scientific advancements, such as Newton’s laws or the Industrial Revolution, catalyzed global progress but also environmental challenges. Literature and music enriched global culture, though their influence is harder to quantify economically. Military innovations and colonial governance, while impactful, often came at the cost of exploitation, raising ethical questions. The global spread of English institutions sometimes homogenized local systems, yet their flexibility allowed integration with diverse cultures. Quantifying their value is complex due to intangible benefits, long-term effects, and the difficulty of isolating England’s role in globalized systems.

List and Explanation of Key Contributions by Category

Law: Common Law and Magna Carta

Magna Carta (1215): Established the principle that the king is subject to the law, laying the foundation for constitutional governance. It influenced modern legal systems, including the U.S. Constitution.
Common Law: A judge-made legal system based on precedent, contrasting with civil law systems. Its flexibility made it widely adopted in English-speaking countries (U.S., Canada, Australia, etc.).
Impact: Common law governs over 30% of the world’s population, underpinning legal systems in major economies. Magna Carta inspired universal human rights frameworks.
Critique: Common law’s reliance on precedent can resist reform, and Magna Carta’s immediate impact was limited to elites, though its symbolic value grew over time.

Literature: Shakespeare, Romantic Poets, and the Novel

William Shakespeare: His plays and sonnets shaped modern drama, language, and storytelling, with universal themes still studied globally.
Romantic Poets (Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats): Redefined poetry’s emotional and natural focus, influencing global literary movements.
The Novel (Defoe, Austen, Dickens): England pioneered the modern novel, a dominant literary form worldwide.
Impact: English literature is a global academic staple, with Shakespeare alone performed in over 100 countries. The novel’s narrative structure influences global media.
Critique: Early English literature was Eurocentric, though its universal themes allowed cross-cultural resonance.

Liberty: Enlightenment Ideas and Individual Rights

John Locke and Liberalism: Locke’s theories on natural rights (life, liberty, property) inspired modern democracy and the U.S. Declaration of Independence.
Bill of Rights (1689): Limited monarchical power and guaranteed parliamentary privileges, a precursor to modern human rights.
Impact: Locke’s ideas underpin democratic constitutions worldwide. The concept of individual liberty shapes global political discourse.
Critique: Early liberty concepts excluded women, non-whites, and lower classes, though they evolved to be more inclusive.

Music: Classical, Pop, and Rock

Classical Music (Purcell, Elgar): Contributed to Western classical traditions, though less dominant than German or Italian influences.
Pop and Rock (The Beatles, Rolling Stones): Revolutionized global music in the 20th century, defining youth culture and modern genres.
Impact: The Beatles alone sold over 600 million records, and English rock bands shaped global music trends. English is the lingua franca of pop music.
Critique: English dominance in pop music can overshadow non-Western traditions, though it fosters global cultural exchange.

Sport: Codification of Modern Sports

Football (Soccer): Codified in 1863 by the Football Association, now the world’s most popular sport.
Cricket, Rugby, Tennis: England standardized rules for these sports, which spread via the British Empire.
Impact: Football’s global reach (4 billion fans) generates massive economic activity. Cricket and rugby are major in Commonwealth nations.
Critique: Sports codification tied to imperialism, though their global adoption reflects universal appeal.

Science: Newton, Darwin, and the Industrial Revolution

Isaac Newton: Laws of motion and gravity laid the foundation for classical physics, influencing engineering and astronomy.
Charles Darwin: Theory of evolution by natural selection transformed biology and philosophy.
Industrial Revolution (1760–1840): Steam engine (Watt), mechanized production, and railways spurred global industrialization.
Impact: Newton’s and Darwin’s theories are cornerstones of modern science. The Industrial Revolution increased global GDP exponentially.
Critique: Industrialization caused environmental degradation and labor exploitation, though it drove unprecedented prosperity.

Governance: Parliamentary Democracy and Civil Service

Parliamentary Democracy: Evolved from the Glorious Revolution (1688), balancing monarchy, parliament, and judiciary. Adopted in many nations.
Modern Civil Service: Northcote-Trevelyan reforms (1854) created a merit-based bureaucracy, a model for efficient governance.
Impact: Parliamentary systems govern over 40 countries. Meritocratic civil services improve administrative efficiency globally.
Critique: Early parliamentary systems were elitist, and colonial bureaucracies often prioritized British interests.

Military: Naval Power and Modern Warfare

Royal Navy: Dominated global seas (17th–19th centuries), enabling British Empire expansion and trade.
Military Innovations: Rifled muskets, ironclad ships, and early tanks influenced modern warfare.
Impact: Naval supremacy shaped global trade routes and geopolitics. Military tech influenced conflicts like WWI.
Critique: Military dominance tied to colonial oppression, though it secured global stability in some periods.

Other: English Language and Global Institutions

English Language: Spread via empire and media, now the global lingua franca for business, science, and diplomacy.
Global Institutions: England’s role in founding the UN, NATO, and international banking systems (e.g., Bank of England’s influence) shaped global governance.
Impact: English is spoken by 1.5 billion people, facilitating global communication. International institutions stabilize global order.
Critique: Linguistic dominance can marginalize other languages, and global institutions often reflect Western biases.

Ranking of Contributions

Based on global impact, enduring relevance, and economic significance (weighted equally):

Science (Industrial Revolution, Newton, Darwin): Catalyzed global economic growth, modern technology, and scientific understanding. Economic impact in trillions.
Law (Common Law, Magna Carta): Underpins legal systems in major economies, influencing billions of people.
Governance (Parliamentary Democracy, Civil Service): Shaped stable governance models worldwide, critical for modern states.
Liberty (Locke, Bill of Rights): Foundation for modern human rights and democratic principles.
English Language: Enables global communication, though not a standalone “contribution” in the same sense.
Literature (Shakespeare, Novel): Culturally transformative, but less economically quantifiable.
Sport (Football, Cricket): Massive cultural and economic impact, especially football.
Military (Naval Power): Shaped geopolitics, but tied to controversial imperialism.
Music (Beatles, Rock): Influential but narrower in scope compared to other categories.

Economic Valuation (USD, 2025 Adjusted)

Estimating the value of historical contributions is inherently speculative due to their intangible and long-term nature. I use a combination of direct economic impacts (e.g., industries created), indirect benefits (e.g., GDP growth enabled), and market analogs (e.g., value of intellectual property). All values are adjusted to 2025 USD using historical inflation rates (assuming 2% annual inflation from 2020–2025 for recent estimates). Below are calculations and assumptions for key contributions.

Science: Industrial Revolution ($50 trillion)

Calculation: The Industrial Revolution (1760–1840) increased global GDP from ~$1 trillion (1800, in 1990 USD) to ~$3 trillion by 1900, with England’s innovations (steam engine, textiles, railways) driving ~30% of this growth. Adjusted to 2025, this contribution compounds over time. I estimate England’s share as $50 trillion, reflecting its role in enabling modern economies (e.g., manufacturing, transport).
Assumptions: England’s contribution is not exclusive (other nations industrialized later). GDP estimates are based on Maddison Project data, adjusted for inflation. Long-term economic growth compounds at 2% annually.
Critique: Overstates England’s sole role but reflects its pioneering impact.

Law: Common Law and Magna Carta ($10 trillion)

Calculation: Common law governs ~30% of global GDP ($150 trillion in 2025). Assuming it enhances economic efficiency by 5% (due to predictable legal frameworks), its value is $7.5 trillion. Magna Carta’s influence on human rights adds $2.5 trillion, analogized to the value of global constitutional frameworks.
Assumptions: Efficiency gain is speculative but conservative (legal systems impact contract enforcement, property rights). Magna Carta’s value is symbolic, tied to global human rights markets (e.g., legal services, NGOs).
Critique: Hard to isolate common law’s economic impact from other systems.

Governance: Parliamentary Democracy ($8 trillion)

Calculation: Parliamentary systems govern ~40 countries, contributing ~40% of global GDP ($60 trillion). Assuming a 5% efficiency gain from stable governance (vs. autocracies), the value is $6 trillion. Civil service reforms add $2 trillion, based on global public administration spending.
Assumptions: Efficiency gain is speculative. Civil service value is tied to global government budgets (~$20 trillion annually, with England’s model influencing 10%).
Critique: Overlaps with liberty and law contributions.

Liberty: Locke and Bill of Rights ($5 trillion)

Calculation: Democratic freedoms correlate with higher GDP per capita. Assuming Locke’s ideas underpin 20% of global democratic GDP ($30 trillion), with a 10% productivity boost, the value is $3 trillion. Bill of Rights adds $2 trillion, tied to global human rights frameworks.
Assumptions: Productivity boost is speculative. Human rights value based on NGO and legal sector estimates.
Critique: Hard to quantify philosophical impact.

English Language ($3 trillion)

Calculation: English’s role as a global lingua franca facilitates ~20% of international trade ($25 trillion annually). Assuming a 10% efficiency gain, its value is $2.5 trillion. Education and media add $0.5 trillion.
Assumptions: Trade efficiency is speculative. Education value based on global language learning markets.
Critique: Overlaps with other categories (e.g., literature, governance).

Literature: Shakespeare and Novel ($1 trillion)

Calculation: Global publishing industry is ~$100 billion annually, with English literature (driven by Shakespeare, novels) contributing 20% ($20 billion). Over 100 years, adjusted for inflation, this is ~$0.5 trillion. Cultural tourism and education add $0.5 trillion.
Assumptions: Shakespeare’s influence is a proxy for English literature. Tourism value based on UK heritage sites.
Critique: Cultural impact is undervalued due to intangibility.

Sport: Football and Others ($0.8 trillion)

Calculation: Global sports industry is ~$500 billion annually, with football contributing ~50% ($250 billion). England’s codification role is worth 20% of this ($50 billion annually), or $0.5 trillion over 100 years. Cricket and rugby add $0.3 trillion.
Assumptions: England’s role is significant but not exclusive. Industry value based on media, sponsorship, and events.
Critique: Economic impact is recent and tied to globalization.

Military: Naval Power ($0.5 trillion)

Calculation: British Navy enabled global trade (16th–19th centuries), contributing ~10% to historical global trade ($5 trillion in 1800, adjusted). Its value is $0.4 trillion. Military tech adds $0.1 trillion.
Assumptions: Trade contribution is speculative. Tech value based on defense industry analogs.
Critique: Tied to controversial imperialism.

Music: Beatles and Rock ($0.3 trillion)

Calculation: Global music industry is ~$30 billion annually, with English rock contributing 10% ($3 billion). Over 60 years, adjusted, this is $0.2 trillion. Cultural influence adds $0.1 trillion.
Assumptions: Beatles as proxy for English music. Cultural value based on media and tourism.
Critique: Narrow scope compared to other categories.

Total Estimated Value: ~$78.6 trillion

Note: Values are cumulative but adjusted to avoid double-counting (e.g., liberty and governance overlap). The figure reflects England’s outsized role in shaping the modern world.

Assumptions and Limitations

Inflation Adjustment: Used 2% annual inflation for 2020–2025, based on U.S. CPI trends. Historical GDP adjusted using Maddison Project data.
Attribution: England’s role is isolated where possible, but global contributions (e.g., Industrial Revolution) involve other nations.
Intangibles: Cultural and philosophical contributions (literature, liberty) are undervalued due to lack of direct economic metrics.
Time Frame: Focus on 13th–21st centuries, as earlier contributions (e.g., Anglo-Saxon law) are less globally impactful.
Ethical Context: Economic estimates do not account for negative externalities (e.g., colonialism, environmental damage).

Conclusion

England’s contributions, particularly in science, law, and governance, have shaped the modern world, with an estimated economic value of ~$78.6 trillion (2025 USD). Science, especially the Industrial Revolution, ranks highest due to its transformative economic impact. While these contributions are monumental, their global spread often involved cultural and ethical trade-offs. The calculations, though speculative, provide a framework to appreciate England’s historical influence, grounded in conservative assumptions to avoid overstatement.

End quote.